Teaching and Learning: Concepts and Approaches PE 3 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

Teaching and Learning: Concepts and Approaches

Introduction

Teaching and learning are closely related. But in modern education, the role of a teacher is not just to give information. The teacher must help students understand, think, and use knowledge meaningfully.

A. Teaching as Instructing vs. Teaching as Facilitating Learning

Teaching as Instructing (Traditional View)

The teacher is the center of learning.

The teacher gives information, students listen and memorize.

Mostly used in Indian schools in the past.

Example: Teacher explains the definition of photosynthesis. Students repeat and write it down.

Teaching as Facilitating Learning (Modern View)

The teacher becomes a guide or helper.

The student is active, asks questions, explores, and participates.

Encourages thinking, creativity, and real understanding.

Example: Instead of just telling about photosynthesis, the teacher takes students outside to observe leaves, sunlight, and ask questions.

Indian Tip: Use group activities, local examples, storytelling, and experiments to help learners understand deeply.

B. Teaching as Empowering Learners

Teaching should help students become confident, independent, and capable of learning on their own.

It should build life skills like problem-solving, communication, and decision-making.

How to Empower Students:

Encourage questions and curiosity.

Support different learning speeds and styles.

Use local language and examples so all can understand.

Give chances for decision-making in projects.

Example: In a project on water conservation, students decide the theme, design posters, and present ideas — they feel confident and responsible.

C. Bruner’s Model of Teaching for Meaningful Learning

Who is Jerome Bruner?

Jerome Bruner was a famous educationist and psychologist who believed that children learn better through experience and active participation.

Bruner’s Key Ideas

Learning is an active process – Learners build new knowledge by connecting with what they already know.

Discovery learning is powerful – Students learn better when they discover answers instead of being told directly.

Spiral Curriculum – Topics are taught step by step, increasing in complexity each time.

Modes of Representation:

Enactive (doing) – Learning by action (e.g., touching, doing)

Iconic (seeing) – Learning through pictures and visuals

Symbolic (thinking) – Learning through language and symbols

Bruner’s Model: Process of Teaching

Step	Description	Example in Indian Classroom
1. Preparation	Connect lesson to prior knowledge	Talk about daily use of water before teaching the water cycle
2. Presentation	Show ideas through activities or visuals	Use bottle, chart, or role-play to show evaporation and rainfall
3. Discussion & Discovery	Ask questions, let students find answers	Ask: “Why do clothes dry faster in the sun?”
4. Reflection	Students talk or write about what they learned	Students explain in their own words or draw a diagram
5. Application	Use learning in new situations	Students make a poster on saving water at home

Implications for Indian Classrooms

Focus more on understanding than memorizing.

Use local materials and examples to explain concepts.

Let students observe, ask, and discover instead of only copying from the board.

Encourage questioning, group work, and expression.

Conclusion

In modern education, the role of a teacher is more than just giving information. A teacher must become a facilitator and empower students to think, ask, and understand. Bruner’s model supports this by making learning active, connected, and meaningful. In the Indian context, this kind of teaching helps reach all learners, especially in classrooms with different abilities, languages, and learning levels.

Current Practices in Indian Education: Over-emphasis on Summative Assessment, Marking, and Competitive Examinations with Their Adverse Effects CPS 2 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

Current Practices in Indian Education: Over-emphasis on Summative Assessment, Marking, and Competitive Examinations with Their Adverse Effects

1. Over-emphasis on Summative Assessment

In Indian schools, a lot of importance is given to summative assessment.

Summative assessment means testing students at the end of a term or year to give marks or grades, like final exams or board exams.

These assessments are often periodic (like quarterly exams) or common/high-stakes exams (like class 10 and 12 board exams, JEE, NEET).

Why this is a problem:

This type of assessment focuses mostly on final results and ignores the learning process.

Students study mainly to pass exams rather than to understand or enjoy learning.

Continuous and formative assessments (which help students improve during the course) get neglected.

Teachers also focus on “teaching to the test” rather than encouraging creativity or critical thinking.

2. Over-emphasis on Marking

Most Indian assessments rely on marks (numbers) rather than grades or descriptive feedback.

Marks create pressure on students to get high scores rather than learn deeply.

Problems caused by this:

Students become score-centered, meaning their main goal is to get marks, not knowledge.

This increases stress, anxiety, and fear of failure among students.

Many students memorize answers without real understanding just to get good marks.

3. Competitive Examinations

India has many competitive exams for admission to schools, colleges, and jobs (like JEE, NEET, UPSC, bank exams).

These exams are highly competitive with thousands of students competing for few seats.

Adverse effects on learners:

Students face extreme pressure from a young age to perform well in these exams.

Many students suffer from anxiety, depression, and health problems due to stress.

Creativity, curiosity, and enjoyment of learning take a back seat.

Some students even resort to unfair means like cheating.

Adverse effects on the education system:

Schools and coaching centers focus mainly on exam preparation rather than holistic education.

Teaching becomes mechanical and exam-oriented, ignoring skills like critical thinking, teamwork, or communication.

Many talented students who don’t perform well in exams lose opportunities.

Adverse effects on society:

The system encourages memorizing and rote learning instead of innovation.

It creates inequality because students from rich families can afford coaching while poor students cannot.

The pressure to succeed in exams sometimes leads to unethical behavior and mental health issues.

4. Need for Change

The Indian education system needs to balance formative and summative assessment.

Formative assessment (like quizzes, assignments, oral tests) helps students learn continuously and improve.

Less emphasis on marks and more on grades and feedback can reduce stress.

Competitive exams should be fairer and include skill-based questions, not only memory-based.

Schools should encourage creativity, problem-solving, and practical knowledge.

Conclusion

Currently, Indian education focuses too much on summative exams and marks, which creates unhealthy competition and stress among learners. This affects not only students but also the whole education system and society by promoting rote learning and inequality. To create a better future, India must move towards more balanced and student-friendly assessment practices that support learning and reduce pressure.

School Activities: Curricular and Co-Curricular Activities PE 1 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

School Activities: Curricular and Co-Curricular Activities

(Components, Mode of Transaction, and Organization)

Introduction

School is not just a place for classroom teaching. It is a place where children develop their knowledge, skills, personality, values, and creativity. This happens through two types of activities:

Curricular Activities (Academic activities)

Co-Curricular Activities (Supportive and extra activities)

Both are equally important for the holistic development of students.

Curricular Activities – Meaning and Components

Curricular activities are those that are directly related to subjects taught in the classroom.

Examples of Curricular Activities:

Teaching of subjects like Science, Math, History, Languages

Practicals in labs

Assignments and homework

Class tests and exams

Debates and discussions based on subjects

Project work based on syllabus

Indian Context:

In schools affiliated with CBSE/ICSE/State Boards, the NCERT/SCERT textbooks form the core of curricular activities.

Co-Curricular Activities – Meaning and Components

Co-curricular activities are those which support academic learning but also focus on emotional, physical, and social development.

Examples of Co-Curricular Activities:

Art, music, dance, and drama

Games and sports

Debate, quiz, essay, elocution

Gardening, yoga, scouts and guides

Celebrating national festivals

Community service and school clubs

Indian Concept:

Gandhiji’s Nai Talim focused on craft-based, work-oriented education – now considered a co-curricular approach.

NEP 2020 promotes art-integrated and sport-integrated learning as part of curriculum.

Mode of Transaction (How these activities are conducted)

Activity Type                                  Mode of Transaction

Curricular                                 - Classroom teaching

                                                        - Use of chalkboard, textbooks, smart boards  

                                                        - Explanation, questioning, assignments          |

Co-Curricular                                 - Competitions, clubs, celebrations

                                                        - Field trips, exhibitions

                                                        - Peer learning and team work |

Indian Practice:

In Kendriya Vidyalayas and Navodaya Schools, regular morning assemblies, yoga, singing, and group activities are part of co-curricular routine.

Organization of Activities

Organizing school activities needs planning, resources, and cooperation among teachers, students, and school administration.

Steps in Organizing Activities:

Planning: Decide the aim, type of activity, time, and budget.

Formation of Committees: Teachers and student leaders are assigned duties.

Execution: Conduct the event as per the plan.

Assessment and Feedback: Reflection on what was learned and how it can improve.

Indian Concept:

During annual day, Independence Day, and Republic Day, schools organize cultural programmes to teach patriotism and teamwork.

Bal Sabha and House-wise Competitions are common in Indian schools.

Importance of School Activities

Aspect                                                                                    Role of Activities

Mental development                                 Through subject teaching and academic tasks

Physical development                                   Sports, yoga, physical education

Emotional growth                                          Music, drama, storytelling

Social skills                                               Group work, field trips, clubs

Moral values                                                 Celebrating festivals, talks on values

NEP 2020:

Says that every child must be given opportunities in arts, sports, life skills, not just academics. Holistic report cards will reflect all types of learning.

Conclusion

Both curricular and co-curricular activities are two wheels of the same vehicle. For a child to become a confident, responsible, and skilled citizen, the school must organize both types of activities effectively. In the Indian education system, the shift from rote learning to activity-based, child-centered learning makes these activities even more important.

“Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.” – John Dewey

Teacher Preparation: Needs, Components and Modes of Pre-Service Teacher Education Programmes for Different School Levels PE 3 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

Teacher Preparation: Needs, Components and Modes of Pre-Service Teacher Education Programmes for Different School Levels (Pre-school, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary)

Introduction

Teacher preparation is the training and education given to people before they become teachers. This is called Pre-Service Teacher Education. In India, different levels of school (pre-school to higher secondary) need different types of teachers. So, the training should match the level.

A. Needs of Pre-Service Teacher Education

1. To Prepare Quality Teachers

Good teachers help children understand, think, and learn better.

Teacher education builds knowledge, skills, and values in future teachers.

2. To Understand Child Psychology

Teachers must know how children think, grow, and behave at different ages.

This helps in better teaching and classroom management.

3. To Learn Teaching Methods

Every subject (Math, Science, Language) needs different teaching methods.

Training teaches how to use activities, technology, and projects in class.

4. To Build Communication and Classroom Skills

Teachers need to communicate well, manage class, and handle different types of students.

Teacher education provides practice and confidence.

5. To Know Educational Policies and Values

Teachers must know about the Indian education system, rights of children, and rules like Right to Education (RTE).

They should follow ethical values like honesty and equality.

B. Components of Pre-Service Teacher Education

1. Foundation Courses

These include philosophy, psychology, sociology of education.

Help teachers understand the social and emotional needs of learners.

2. Subject Knowledge

Teachers study in-depth content of the subjects they will teach.

Example: A Science teacher studies science deeply during training.

3. Pedagogy (Teaching Methods)

Teachers learn how to teach different subjects effectively.

This includes child-friendly methods, storytelling, group work, and experiments.

4. ICT Integration

Teachers learn how to use technology like smart boards, mobile apps, and digital resources in class.

Indian example: Training includes using DIKSHA app and online learning tools.

5. Internship / School Experience

Future teachers go to real schools for teaching practice.

They observe senior teachers, take classes, and handle students.

Example: In B.Ed., students go for 4–16 weeks of school internship.

6. Assessment and Evaluation

Teachers learn how to check students' learning using tests, activities, and observation.

Focus is on both marks and child development.

C. Modes of Pre-Service Teacher Education

1. Face-to-Face (Regular Mode)

Training in colleges or universities.

Includes lectures, group work, assignments, and school internship.

Example: B.Ed. course in CTE (College of Teacher Education), Rourkela.

2. Distance Mode

For people who are working or cannot attend regular classes.

Study materials are sent by post or online.

Indian Example: IGNOU and NIOS offer teacher training through distance mode.

3. Blended Mode (Online + Offline)

Combines classroom learning and digital learning.

Useful after COVID-19 when many teacher education programs shifted online.

D. Teacher Preparation at Different School Levels in India

School Level	Training Programme	Duration	Key Focus
Pre-school (3–6 yrs)	Diploma in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE)	1 year	Child care, play-way method, language development
Elementary (Classes 1–8)	D.El.Ed. (Diploma in Elementary Education) or B.El.Ed.	2–4 years	Child psychology, subject basics, activity-based learning
Secondary (Classes 9–10)	B.Ed. (Bachelor of Education)	2 years	Pedagogy of specific subjects like science, maths, etc.
Higher Secondary (Classes 11–12)	B.Ed. + Master’s Degree in subject	2 + 2 years	Deep subject knowledge + advanced teaching strategies

Conclusion

Pre-service teacher education is very important to prepare skilled and confident teachers who can handle learners of all ages. In India, the system is slowly improving with new training methods, technology use, and better understanding of child needs. A well-prepared teacher is the key to quality education and nation-building.

Learning as Meaning Making PE 3 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

Learning as Meaning Making

Introduction

Learning is not just about collecting facts or remembering answers. It becomes meaningful when students make sense of what they learn — when they connect it to their own life, understand it deeply, and use it in new situations.

This process is called “Meaning Making.” It sees the learner as an active participant, not a passive receiver of knowledge.

A. Concept of Meaning Making

Meaning making is the process where the learner tries to understand, relate, and use the knowledge in their own way.

Learners don't just copy what the teacher says; they think, ask, reflect, and create meaning from what they experience or learn.

Every child may create different meanings based on their background, language, culture, and previous knowledge.

Example: When a teacher teaches the water cycle, one child may imagine rivers and rains in their village, another may think of floods in the city. Each child connects it differently.

B. Process of Meaning Making

The process of making meaning usually involves:

1. Experiencing

Students experience or come in contact with new ideas, situations, or information.

2. Thinking and Reflecting

They think about what it means, how it connects to what they already know.

3. Questioning and Exploring

They ask questions, do activities, or observe things to understand more.

4. Understanding and Connecting

They finally understand the concept in a way that it becomes personally meaningful.

Indian example: A child learning about farming through school lessons, and then visiting their grandfather’s field to actually see how seeds are sown — that’s meaning making.

C. Learner as Meaning Maker

Every learner brings their own knowledge, language, culture, and experiences to the classroom. So, each child gives different meanings to the same lesson. A teacher must understand this and help every child make learning meaningful.

D. Characteristics of Learner as Meaning Maker

1. Curiosity

Children are naturally curious.

They keep asking “why,” “how,” and “what if.”

This curiosity leads to discovery and learning.

Example: A child asking why the moon changes shape — this is the beginning of meaning making.

2. Interest

Learners show more involvement when the topic connects to their life or is made interesting.

Teachers should relate lessons to local events, festivals, or activities.

Example: Teaching pollution during Diwali in cities — students understand it better because it is relevant to them.

3. Active Engagement

Learning happens best when students do activities, not just listen.

They should participate in discussions, projects, role-plays, and experiments.

Example: Students performing a skit on water conservation to understand its importance.

E. Role of Inquiry in Meaning Making

1. What is Inquiry?

Inquiry means asking questions, exploring answers, and thinking deeply. It is a powerful way to support meaningful learning.

2. Why is Inquiry Important?

Encourages students to think for themselves.

Makes them responsible for their own learning.

Helps them develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Example: Instead of just telling students the causes of pollution, ask them to find out from newspapers, neighborhood, or internet.

F. Indian Context and Classroom Examples

In Indian classrooms, meaning making can be encouraged by:

Using local languages and stories.

Connecting topics to daily life and local culture.

Encouraging group discussions and question-answer sessions.

Allowing students to share personal experiences.

For instance, in rural India, when teaching about water conservation, teachers can connect it to the water scarcity in their own village, making it real and relatable.

Conclusion

Learning as meaning making is a powerful and natural way for children to learn. It involves not just understanding, but also feeling, questioning, and applying. Every child is a meaning maker — full of curiosity, interest, and ideas. The teacher’s role is to create a classroom environment where learners feel free to explore, ask, and connect their learning with real life. In the Indian setting, where learners come from diverse backgrounds, meaning making becomes even more important for inclusive and joyful learning.

Classification of Assessment (Based on Purpose, Scope, Attributes, Information, Response Mode, Interpretation, and Context) CPS 2 For Odisha B.Ed & Education Honours

Classification of Assessment

(Based on Purpose, Scope, Attributes, Information, Response Mode, Interpretation, and Context)

Introduction

Assessment is the process of collecting information about a learner’s performance, knowledge, attitude, or skills. It helps teachers to understand how much the student has learned and how they can be helped further.

Assessment can be classified in different ways depending on its purpose, scope, attributes, and other factors. In India, education policies like CCE, NEP 2020, and NIPUN Bharat promote various types of assessments for better learning outcomes.

1. Classification Based on Purpose

Type	Meaning	Example (Indian context)
Placement	To decide where to place a student before starting instruction	Entry test before joining a tuition class
Formative	Done during teaching to improve learning	Class test after every lesson
Diagnostic	To identify learning problems and reasons	Test to find out why a child is weak in reading
Summative	Done at the end of a course to assign marks or grades	Final school exam or board exam

2. Classification Based on Scope

Type	Meaning	Example
Teacher-made Test	Prepared by individual teachers for their own class	Weekly school test made by a teacher
Standardized Test	Prepared by experts, same for all students, tested before use	CBSE Board Exam, NTSE

3. Classification Based on Attributes Measured

Type	What it Measures	Example
Achievement	Measures what has been learned	Chapter-wise school test
Attitude	Measures feelings, opinions, or values	Survey on students’ interest in science
Aptitude	Measures future potential or ability	Olympiad, Talent Search Test
Skills	Measures specific skills (like reading)  Performance in a drawing or lab activity

4. Classification Based on Nature of Information

Type	Meaning	Example
Quantitative	Based on numbers and scores	8 out of 10 in a test
Qualitative	Based on description, observation, and behavior	Remarks on student behavior in class

Indian Concept Example:

In CCE (Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation), both marks (quantitative) and teacher comments (qualitative) were used.

5. Classification Based on Mode of Response

Type	Meaning	Example
Oral	Student answers by speaking	Oral quiz or viva
Written	Student writes the answer	Written test or assignment
Performance-based	Student performs a task	Science experiment, art display

6. Classification Based on Nature of Interpretation

Type	Meaning	Example
Norm-referenced	Compares student performance with others	Ranking students in class
Criterion-referenced	Compares performance to a fixed standard or learning goal	Giving grade based on 80% score (not comparing with others)

                                         

Indian Example:

Norm-referenced: Class rank in board exam

Criterion-referenced: “Passed” if scored 33%, as per board rules

7. Classification Based on Context

Type	Meaning	Example
Internal	Conducted by the school or teacher	Class tests, school-level exams
External	Conducted by external agencies	Board exams (CBSE, BSE Odisha), NEET

Indian Example:

Internal: Teacher's own assessment in school

External: Class 10 BSE Odisha board examination

Conclusion

Assessment is not one-size-fits-all. Depending on the goal, context, and learner's need, different types of assessments are used. In India, new educational policies are encouraging continuous, flexible, child-friendly assessments to ensure better learning for all students.

Right type of assessment helps both teaching and learning grow together.